Phylogeny/Taxonomy

1.Introduction

A.      Systemics -patterns of diversity among organisms in time and space.

B.       Taxonomy – identification of organisms by assigning names to them.

C.       Phylogeny attempts to identify the evolutionary patterns that unite different organisms.

D.      Classification is the categorizing of phylogenetic information into a type of retrieval system consisting of many hierarchical levels.

2. Taxonomy

A.      Units of evolution called taxa.

B.       Unit most often studied is the species.

C.       Correct identification of of species requires knowledge of anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, ecology and behavior.

D.      Linnean scheme : binomial system consists of two part name which uniquely identifies each species. Names are in Latin.

E.       Genus is the first name of closely related organisms.

F.       Species is the second name, interbreeding relationship

3. Classification

A.      King Philip Came Over From Granada Singing.

B.       Kingdom, Phylum (Division), Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species

C.       Species is the only real entity in the scheme.  The rest are categories of relationships.

4.        Five Kingdoms.

A.      Monera: single celled prokaryotes.It is widely believed today that prokaryotes gave rise to all other kingdoms.

B.       Protista: single celled eukaryotes: some photosynthsizers.

C.       Fungi:  multicellular  heterotrophs that feed by extra cellular digestion.

D.      Plantae: multicellular photosynthetic organisms.

E.       Animalia: diverse multicellular heterotrophs

5.        Monera

A.Prokaryotic, single-celled organisms.  Fossils are 3.5 billion years old.

B. Photosynthetic and Chemosynthetic heterotrophs and autotrophs.

D.      Prokaryotic.  No nucleus, have a cell wall. Come in three shapes

i.                     Coccus or round

ii.                    Bacillus or rod

iii.                  Spirillum or twisted

E.        Subkingdoms

i.                     Archaebacteria-ancient, different cell walls, different membranes, different chlorophyll.  They are found in extreme environments such as methanogens which are found in swamps, sewage, intestines. Methanogens are typically anaerobic and convert carbon dioxide to methane. Or halophilic (salt lovers) which are found in the dead sea or in salt marshes. Halophilic bacteria most anaerobic heterotrophs and many have distinctive pinkish pigments. Or thermoacidophilic which are found in hot springs or deep sea vents.  They can live in high heat (250 ^o C) or low pH environments

ii.                    Eubacteria – their mass outweighs all plant and animal mass.  Photosynthetic eubacteria include the cyanobacteria which form pond scum, chemosynthetic eubacteria which help with nitrogen cycling, and heterotrophic eubacteria which include nitrogen fixers and dairy product converters, syphilis, gonorrhea, lyme disease, and Ecoli which can make vitamin K

F.       Bacteria are the major decomposers of most ecosystems liberating molecules for use by other members of the community.

G.       Positive things bacteria do:

i.                     Fermentation, alcohol, vinegar and acetone. 

ii.                    Leather is tanned by bacteria,

iii.                  Textiles are prepared by bacteria. 

iv.                  Cheese and yogurt.

v.                   Tool for molecular biology

vi.                  Used to make insulin and growth hormone

vii.                Produce some antibiotics like streptomycin.

viii.               Fix nitrogen

ix.                   Make vitamin K

H.      Negative things bacteria do:

i.                     Various disease like leprosy,

ii.                    TB

iii.                  Typhoid fever

iv.                  Pneumonia

v.                   Diarrhea

vi.                  Syphilis, gonorrhea

vii.                Lyme  disease

viii.               Botulism

ix.                   Tetanus 

6.        Protista- eukaryotic unicellular species about 1.6 billion years old.  They all have membrane bound organelles.

1. Protozoans-animal like

i.                     Mastigopora- most primitive.  Have flagella. 9 + 2 microtubular substructure. No cell wall. Most are parasitic.  Trypanosomes cause African sleeping Sickness.  Giardia causes diarrhea.  Trichonymph can digest cellulose , and lives in the gut of a termite.

ii.                    Sarcondina-amoebas, no cell wall, some have a shell, some live in the sea and have gaudy shells. Some in ponds.

iii.                  Sporozoa- parasites. Can’t move. Malaria caused by Plasmodium.  Mosquito is the vector. Reemerging as a threat to human health.

iv.                  Ciliata- most evolved. Paramecium, have cilia with the 9 + 2  microtubular stucture.  Found in ponds.

v.                   Opalinida- enteric parasites in non-mammalian vertebrates

2. Algal Protists-plant like

i.                     Euglenophyta-complex and found in ponds. Most are photosynthesizers and have chloroplasts. Large flagella are also characteristic

ii.                    Pyrrophyta include the dinoflagellates.  Pyrro means fire, they are red and cause the red tides which kill fish.  They have two flagella.  They can multiply rapidly to suffocate life and release a nerve toxin.

iii.                  Chrysophyta include diatoms (diatomaceous earth used as filters).  The cell walls of diatoms contain silica instead of cellulose, which gives them glassy shells  Other organisms in this category are golden brown algae and yellow green algae.

iv.                  Chlorophya- ancestral to plant kingdom.  Algael component of lichen.

3. Fungi like Protist

i.                     myxomycota-plasmodial slime molds.

ii.                    Acrasiomycota-cellular slime molds.

7.        Fungi- eukaryotic, heterotrophic, multicellular (yeast is the exception), eat via absorption not ingestion, secrete digestive enzymes outside their bodies, cell wall with chitin, not very mobile.  Mold mushrooms and yeast. About 400 million years old.

1.  4 basic phyla/divisions

i.                     Zygomycota-live on land, bread mold.

ii.                    Ascomycota-yeast, mildews ergot (rye), Cup fingi in the forest such as truffles and morels.

iii.                  Basidiomycota(club fungi), mushroom, toad stools, puffballs.

iv.                  Deuteromycota- unknown sexual cycle, Candida albicans (causes problems for cancer and aids patients). Penicillium.

2. Lichens are a mutualistic association of algal or cyanobacteia with fungi.
3. Fungi are our friends.

i.                     Decomposers that break down dead material and feces.

ii.                    Associate with plants to help plants absorb water and minerals.

iii.                  Make antibiotics like penicillium

iv.                  Yeast ferments beer, ale and wine, cheese such as Camembert and Roquefort.

v.                   Ergot mold used to control bleeding, foster uterine contractions, and combat nigraines.  Also can produce hallucinogens which are similar to LSD.

D.  Fungi are our foes

i.                     Ringworm

ii.                    Athlete’s foot

iii.                  Yeast infections

iv.                  Destroy Crops with rusts(wheat) and smuts(flour), rots fruits and veggies.

8.        Plantae- multicellular, autotrophic organisms that have successfully invaded terrestrial environments.

1. 400 million years ago plants got onto land.
2. Divisions are bryophytes and tracheophytes (vascular plants).
3. Bryophytes: Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. The gametophyte generation is the dominant phase.  They need to have water present for fertilization to take place.
4. Vascular plants have roots, stems, and leaves.  Some have cones and flowers.
5. Lycophyta-club moss
6. Sphenophyta-horsetail
7. Pterophyta-fern
8. Seed plants

i.                     Gymnosperms are 400 million years old.

ii.                    Cycadophyta have palm-like leaves.

iii.                  Gingkgophyta have fan shaped leaves. Ginko

iv.                  Gnetophyta are angiosperm like

v.                   Coniferophyta include redwoods like the sequoia.  4 meters in diameter and 100 meters tall and 1500 years old. Pine cone has both male and female parts.  Needles, leaves, evergreen trees.

9. Angiosperms are the most successful plant.  100 million years old.

i.                     Monocot- one cotyledon, 4,5 petals, include grasses lilies and major crop grains.

ii.                    Dicot- tow cotyledons, 3 petals, include shrubs, trees (ecept conifers) and herbacious plants.

J.  Red (agar producers), brown(large kelps, produce algin, important in ice cream),  and green algae (greatest resemblance to land plants) are considered plants.

9.        Animalia- eukaryotic organisims, omnivores and herbivores.

A. Body plan is either radial or bilateral.

B. Cephalization refers to development of head region.

4. Either  they have an incomplete or complete gut.
5. Body either has a cavity or not. The space between the gut and body wall may have a lining called a coelom.  If no lining is present it is called a pseudocoelom.
6. Some animals are segmented.
7. Invertebrates

i.                     Phylum Porifera includes sponges.

ii.                    Phylum Cnidaria includes hydrozoans, jelly fishes, anemones and corals and posses unique stinging cells.

iii.                  Phylum Platyhelminthes are flatworms. Three types of flatworms: tubellarians include the planaria, flukes include many parasitic species, and Tapeworms are parasitic in the intestines of vertebrates.

iv.                  Phylum Nemertea include ribbon worms which can evert probaoscis as a harpoon to capture prey.

v.                   The following are true coelom Invertebrates.

vi.                  Protostomes are mouth first developers.  Includes Molluscs, Annelids, and Arthropods.

vii.                Deuterstomes are bottom first developers.  Includes Echinoderms and Chrodates.

viii.               Phylum Mollusca includes chitons, snails, clams, squid and octopus.

ix.                   Phylum Annelida include the segmented worms such as earthworms, leeches and marine worms.

x.                    Phylum Arthrodpoda is the largest Phylum and is divided to four subphyla:

A.      Trilobites are extinct

B.       Chelicerates are horseshoe crab, spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites.

C.       Crustaceans are copepods, crabs lobsters, shrimps and barnacles

D.      Uniramians are centipedes, millipedes and insects

xi.                   Phylum Echinodermata include sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers

8. Forerunners of verebrates

i.                     Phylum Chordata- All chordates posses a notochord, a pharynx with gill slits, a tail, a tubular nerve cord.

ii.                    Urochordates-sea squirts

iii.                  Cephalochordates are lancets.

iv.                  Class Agnatha are jawless fishes

v.                   Class Chondricthyes are the cartilaginous fishes such as sharks and rays.

vi.                  Class Osteicthyes are the bony fishes.

vii.                Amphibians include salamanders, frogs and toads.

viii.               Reptiles include turtles, lizards and snakes

ix.                   Birds evolved from reptiles.

x.                    Mammals are characterized by milk secreting glands for nourishing the young, hair, dentition, endothermy, increased brain capacity,